{"id":1154,"date":"2021-07-18T23:20:16","date_gmt":"2021-07-18T23:20:16","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/anthropological.cloud\/wau\/wcaa\/?post_type=propios-terminos&p=1154"},"modified":"2021-07-18T23:25:40","modified_gmt":"2021-07-18T23:25:40","slug":"nara","status":"publish","type":"propios-terminos","link":"https:\/\/waunet.org\/wcaa\/propios-terminos\/nara\/","title":{"rendered":"Betwixt and Between: China and Islam"},"content":{"rendered":"

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 <\/p>\n

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\u4ee5\u4e0a\u306e\u3088\u3046\u306b\u3001\u79c1\u306e\u6c11\u65cf\u8a8c\u3067\u306f\u3001\u5b97\u6559\u3068\u4e16\u4fd7\u3092\u3081\u3050\u308b\u554f\u984c\u3092\u56de\u65cf\u306e\u8af8\u5b9f\u8df5\u3092\u4e8b\u4f8b\u306b\u691c\u8a0e\u3059\u308b\u3053\u3068\u3092\u4e3b\u8981\u306a\u8ad6\u70b9\u306e\u3072\u3068\u3064\u3068\u3057\u3066\u3044\u308b\u3002\u4e2d\u56fd\u306b\u304a\u3051\u308b\u300c\u5b97\u6559\uff08zongjiao<\/em>\uff09\u300d\u306f\u3001\u897f\u6d0b\u30ad\u30ea\u30b9\u30c8\u6559\u793e\u4f1a\u306b\u304a\u3044\u3066\u5f62\u6210\u3055\u308c\u305f\u201creligion\u201d\u6982\u5ff5\uff08Asad 1993\uff09\u304c\u660e\u6cbb\u671f\u306e\u65e5\u672c\u306b\u304a\u3044\u3066\u300c\u5b97\u6559\uff08shukyo<\/em>\uff09\u300d\u3068\u3057\u3066\u7ffb\u8a33\u3055\u308c\u305f\u3082\u306e\u304c\u6301\u3061\u8fbc\u307e\u308c\u305f\u3082\u306e\u3067\u3042\u308b\u3002\u305d\u308c\u306f\u73fe\u5728\u306e\u4e2d\u56fd\u5171\u7523\u515a\u306b\u3088\u308b\u5b97\u6559\u7ba1\u7406\u5236\u5ea6\u306b\u53cd\u6620\u3055\u308c\u3001\u4eca\u3082\u56de\u65cf\u306b\u3088\u308b\u30a4\u30b9\u30e9\u30fc\u30e0\u306b\u95a2\u308f\u308b\u8af8\u5b9f\u8df5\u306b\u5927\u304d\u304f\u5f71\u97ff\u3057\u3066\u3044\u308b\u3002\u79c1\u306e\u8a66\u307f\u306f\u3001\u4e2d\u56fd\u306b\u304a\u3051\u308b\u300c\u5b97\u6559\u300d\u3092\u65e5\u672c\u8a9e\u3078\u7ffb\u8a33\u3059\u308b\u3053\u3068\u3067\u3082\u3042\u3063\u305f\u3068\u3044\u3048\u308b\u3060\u308d\u3046\u3002\u305d\u3057\u3066\u3001\u305d\u308c\u306f\u3055\u3089\u306b\u3053\u3053\u3067\u65e5\u672c\u8a9e\u304b\u3089\u82f1\u8a9e\u306b\u7ffb\u8a33\u3055\u308c\u308b\u3002\u3053\u3046\u3057\u305f\u7ffb\u8a33\u306e\u9023\u9396\u306e\u306a\u304b\u3067\u751f\u307e\u308c\u308b\u6982\u5ff5\u306e\u30ba\u30ec\u3068\u305d\u308c\u3092\u3081\u3050\u308b\u8af8\u5b9f\u8df5\u304b\u3089\u3001\u79c1\u306f\u5b97\u6559\u7684\u306a\u3082\u306e\u306e\u3042\u308a\u65b9\u3092\u8003\u3048\u3066\u3044\u308b\u3002<\/p>\n

Betwixt and Between: China and Islam<\/h2>\n

Masashi Nara
\nHokkaido University<\/p>\n

Muslims who do not or cannot follow Islamic practices such as worship carry out missionary activities (Da’wa<\/em>). How is it possible to understand such a phenomenon? The ethnography that I published last year (Nara Masashi 2016\u00a0\u201cIslamic Movements\u201d in Contemporary China: An Ethnography of the Hui People Living Difficulty.\u00a0<\/em>Tokyo:\u00a0<\/em>Fukyosha) is my answer to this question that I came across in the field.<\/p>\n

I carried out fieldwork in Kunming, Yunnan Province, China for two years, focusing on a Muslim minority called the Hui. They have been shaped through repetitious intermarriage between foreign Muslims, for example Arabs, Persians, and Turks who migrated to China mainly from the Tang dynasty until the Yuan dynasty), and Chinese Han people who converted to Islam. They are widely distributed all over China. Moreover, their mother tongue is Mandarin Chinese.<\/p>\n

A rapid revival of religion has occurred in China because of the abatement of religious policies since 1978 when a policy of \u201creform and opening\u201d called\u00a0Gaige Kaifang<\/em>\u00a0was introduced. Hui society was no exception to the resulting upsurge in religiosity. Moreover, the influence of rigid Islamic discourse is becoming increasingly powerful in Hui society, and so the tendency to aspire for piety has been increasing among the Hui people. However, as mentioned above, Muslims who engage in Islamic missionary activities are not necessarily pious. This is related to changes in Hui society in the post-Mao era.<\/p>\n

The Hui people have historically formed their communities centered around a mosque in each area, although they are widely distributed across China. However, this traditional residential style of Hui community has been basically dismantled, especially in urban areas, as a result of urban development. As a result, \u201chanization (hanhua<\/em>)\u201d amongst the Hui people is thought to have progressed further since the economic reform. For example, it brought about a dilution of the sense of religiosity or Muslim identity, or resulted in the Hui people neglecting the practice of Islam. In addition, an increase in intermarriage between the Hui people and the Han people has come to be considered as a big social problem among the Hui people.<\/p>\n

In sum, there have been a polarization between pietization and hanization or secularization in Hui society. This manifests itself as a separation of an ethnic category, Hui, and a religious category, Muslim. It was believed that Hui and Muslim were an inseparable category before the post-Mao era. However, \u201cbeing Muslim\u201d has been about an attribute that is acquired through Islamic practices but not \u201cbeing Hui,\u201d which is a given as determined by consanguinity especially amongst pious Hui people because the two contradictory changes in religiosity of Hui people have been distinguished since the economic reform.<\/p>\n

Based on the above, my question at the beginning of this article can be paraphrased as why is it that not only pious Hui people but also many of the \u201chanized\u201d Hui people participate in Islamic missionary activities. Furthermore, I might come up with one other question about why pious Hui people who are critical of \u201chanized\u201d Hui people carry out these activities with them. However, the trait of \u201cdoing Hui Muslim in China\u201d comes to appear in this seemingly inconsistent phenomenon.<\/p>\n

To get straight to the point, these Islamic missionary activities are more than just that. This is why Hui people with differing degrees of religious piety could participate in the activities. These activities were begun in order to propagate Islam by a few pious Hui university students with the support of the clergy. Therefore, these activities are mainly carried out by Hui university students. The participants and supporters of these activities describe their purpose as being \u201cfor the development of Islam\u201d et cetera in one voice, and so they are represented as just Islamic missionary activities. However, on a practical level, these activities have expanded through partially shared interests of various actors with different purposes (cf. Bayat 2005). For example, the financial supporters of ordinary Muslims aim for the development of the Hui people through the promotion of general education. Moreover, several Hui university students who conduct the activities regard them as a chance to meet Muslims of the opposite sex or as recreational activities. Thus, the Islamic missionary activities have developed as activities that are nationalist movements as well as recreational activities all at the same time through incorporating various elements that are not directly related to Islam as a dogma. As such, these activities have widened in scale through mobilizing a large number of participants and supporters with some contradictions among these actors.<\/p>\n

It is possible to partially share their interests because, as the title of this article suggests, as Muslims in China, they are \u201cbetwixt and between.\u201d The clergy that supports the activities would like to carry them out as missionary activities. However, carrying out missionary work overtly is likely to bring about the enforcement of governmental regulations because it is prohibited by the Chinese government. Therefore, the pretext of the promotion of general education is required. Moreover, they need to involve Hui university students in the activities as they are short of actors who are willing to engage in missionary works.<\/p>\n

On the other hand, the financial supporters of ordinary Muslims who aim for the development of the Hui people also require the religious resources that ensure room and board is offered to the students carrying out these activities. Therefore, they have to incorporate the clergy’s support. Furthermore, mobilizing university students as actors to conduct these activities is indispensable to the attainment of their objectives.<\/p>\n

Moreover, pious Hui people who actually conduct the activities share the goals of the clergy who supports it. However, for many of the \u201chanized\u201d Hui university students who engage in these activities, such events can provide much desired opportunities to meet Muslims of the opposite sex. As mentioned above, an increase in intermarriage between Hui and Han people has been a social problem because for Hui people, looking for a marriage partner is very difficult in urban areas where traditional Hui communities have basically been undermined. Therefore, securing such opportunities is a problem shared by various Hui people across generations with differing degrees of religious piety. As such, there is a space wherein the clergy and pious participants who carry out the activities through segregated-gender teams are willy-nilly acceptable to the idea of mixed-gender teams carrying them out.<\/p>\n

What this case makes clear is not the dichotomic religious and secular framework that is assumed in the argument about post-secularism put forward to argue that religion has come to play a public role (cf. Asad 1996; 2003). On the one hand, the Islamic missionary activities are regarded as an extremely religious activity on the discursive level, but on the other hand these activities have developed entanglements of the religious and the secular with inconsistencies among them. In this sense, it is not that the religious aspect separated from the secular has come to be related to the latter separated from the former on the practical level, as Bruno Latour explained the relationship between nature and society using a metaphor of a tunnel (Latour 1999: 86). The aforementioned clergy and pious Hui people have to be involved in the project for meeting Muslims of the opposite sex or the promotion of general education on the process of working toward the development of Islam, and vice versa.<\/p>\n

Religions are still strictly regimented by the government in China, so there is always a danger of governmental regulations for the Hui people. However, as mentioned above, their activities could not build a stable structure through the Islamic faith because they are not necessarily based on an upsurge in religiosity of the Hui people. Therefore, they are forced to stop the activities without political action either against the state or with it such as resistance. However, instead of being completely oppressed by the government, the Hui people could continue their activities by temporarily stopping them, shifting locations, and changing the ways of conducting them, if intermittently, because of such a vulnerability characterizing their activities. Regarding this point, see my article that will soon be uploaded on\u00a0D\u00e9j\u00e0 Lu<\/em>\u00a0of the WCAA website (Nara Masashi 2015 Autonomy in Movement: Informal Islamic Pedagogical Activities among Hui Muslims in China.\u00a0BUNKAJINRUIGAKU<\/em>\u00a080(3): 363-385).<\/p>\n

As stated above, one of the main points in my ethnography is to examine the relationship between the religious and the secular, focusing on the Islamic practices followed by the Hui people. The concept of religion in Mandarin Chinese (Zongjiao<\/em>) is a concept that was introduced into China at the end of the 19th century via the Japanese translation (Shukyo<\/em>) of the concept of religion that had been formed in the Western Christian society. This concept that has been reflected in the religious policies of the Communist Party of China still influences the Islamic practices of the Hui people today. Thus, my attempt seems to retranslate \u201cthe religious\u201d in China into Japanese. Again, this Japanese translation is retranslated into English here as well. I am examining the way of the religious, focusing on the conceptual gaps generated in this chain of translation or retranslation and the practices around them.<\/p>\n

References<\/h3>\n

Asad, Talal. 1993.\u00a0Genealogies of Religion: Discipline and Reasons of Power in Christianity and Islam<\/em>. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press.<\/p>\n

————. 2003.\u00a0Formation of the Secular: Christianity, Islam, Modernity<\/em>, Stanford: Stanford University Press.<\/p>\n

Latour, Bruno. 1999.\u00a0Pandora’s Hope: Essays on the Reality of Science Studies<\/em>. Cambridge, Mass: Harvard University Press.<\/p>\n

Bayat, Asef. 2005. Islamism and Social Movement Theory.\u00a0Third World Quarterly<\/em>\u00a026(6): 891-908.<\/p>\n

Nara Masashi. 2016\u00a0\u201cIslamic Movements\u201d in Contemporary China: An Ethnography of the Hui People Living Difficulty<\/em>. Tokyo: Fukyosha\uff08\u5948\u826f\u96c5\u53f22016\u300e\u73fe\u4ee3\u4e2d\u56fd\u306e\u3008\u30a4\u30b9\u30e9\u30fc\u30e0\u904b\u52d5\u3009\u2015\u2015\u751f\u304d\u306b\u304f\u3055\u3092\u751f\u304d\u308b\u56de\u65cf\u306e\u6c11\u65cf\u8a8c\u300f\u6771\u4eac\uff1a\u98a8\u97ff\u793e\uff09.<\/p>\n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"

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Betwixt and Between: China and Islam Masashi Nara Hokkaido University Muslims who do not or cannot follow Islamic practices such as worship carry out missionary activities (Da’wa). 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