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<\/p>\n
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\uff0a\uff0a\uff0a\uff0a\uff0a\uff0a<\/p>\n
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<\/p>\n
Embedding Fair Trade into a Society<\/p>\n
Arihiro Minoo
\nToyo University<\/p>\n
Compared with Western countries such as the UK or Switzerland, in Japan, fair trade lacks popularity. Nevertheless, because the concept of alleviating poverty through trade has fascinated some Japanese social scientists, who are interested in the related international developments and social movements, since 2000, several interdisciplinary research projects have been created. For example, Kan Sato, a developmental sociologist at the Institute of Developing Economies and Motoi Suzuki, a cultural anthropologist at the National Museum of Ethnology, conducted joint research projects over several years on the meanings of fair trade practices and philosophies in our globalized world. Also, the Alter Trade Research Group, which was organized by agricultural economist Koichi Ikegami, has been studying this topic for a decade after receiving a grant from the Japanese Society for the Promotion of Science.<\/p>\n
A distinctive feature of these Japanese research projects is that they include fair trade practitioners such as those engaged in fair trade businesses. However, in the empirical studies, there has been a serious lack of long-term fieldwork focusing on the fair trade producers\u2019 side. Although many scholars have recognized its necessity, no one had the chance to conduct long-term fieldwork while the research projects were being organized. In this context, I, a postgraduate student specializing in cultural anthropology, began one and a half years of fieldwork with small-scale coffee producers in Laos, a Southeast Asian country.<\/p>\n
*********<\/p>\n
In the US and UK, ethnographies on fair trade farmers and workers have been frequently published up to present. These include studies on coffee producers in Guatemala by Sarah Lyon (2010), banana producers in Belize by Mark Moberg (2008), tea plantation workers in India by Sarah Besky (2013), and coffee producers in Costa Rica by Peter Luetchford (2007). In comparison, Japanese ethnographies on fair trade have been scarce.<\/p>\n
This is the situation in which I published a Japanese-language ethnography on the economic and social impacts of fair trade on small-scale producers (Minoo 2014). While scholars in the US and UK targeted small-scale producers in Latin America, where fair trade is actively conducted, I dared to choose producers in Southeast Asia, where fair trade is little known to either officials or farmers as a tool for poverty alleviation. This is not only because Japan and Laos maintain a robust relationship in terms of trade and international development, but also because I attempted to examine how fair trade functions in a case where it was introduced to a region outside of Latin America, where the certification system of fair trade had already been set up.<\/p>\n
*********<\/p>\n
In Laos, a landlocked country where glutinous rice is widely cultivated, coffee seedlings were brought to the Bolaven Plateau by French colonialists in the 1910s. Then, after Laos became a socialist country in 1975, coffee planting spread in this area under the collectivization policy for farming. In 1990, when the government forced farmers to cease slash and burn cultivation, they came to plant coffee as their main livelihood. Such dependency on coffee left them exposed to risks such as fluctuations in market prices and natural disasters. Rural development projects, including fair trade, have been conducted continually since the 1990s, being supported by various funds from the French government and Oxfam, an international non-governmental organization.<\/p>\n
Firstly, before I conducted the fieldwork, I assumed there were various conflicts between the newly constructed \u201cdemocratic\u201d fair trade cooperatives and existing parties such as village representatives or middlemen, because the former threatens the vested interests of the latter. This supposition was partly correct and I was able to elucidate the dynamic politics among the actors concerning money and power in the field.<\/p>\n
The most interesting point is the advantage that middlemen have over fair trade cooperatives. Even if a cooperative purchased coffee at a higher price than the middlemen, no farmers stopped selling it to the middlemen. Upon inquiring into the reason why they continued to do this, I found that the middlemen traded with the farmers while responding to their needs flexibly. The farmers earned cash income for the collective for only four months in the harvest season. Thus, they purchased necessities in bulk, such as an amount of the rice necessary until the next harvest season. As such, many farmers ran out of cash before the next season and so, if a member of their family ended up suffering from a serious illness or injury, they had to cover the medical expenses by borrowing money. In this case, generally, farmers who could not take out a loan from an official bank were forced to borrow money at a high interest rate (8\u201310 percent per month) from a middleman with whom they had become acquainted. In exchange for the money, the middleman acquired the right to purchase their coffee preferentially.<\/p>\n
Because such local transaction practices are constructed between the farmers and middlemen, a cooperative, which usually has weak financial foundations, is no match for the middlemen in terms of broader customer acquisition. Because anyone who has some funds to purchase coffee and a pickup truck can start their own brokerage, it can be said it is a business with a low barrier to entry. Thus, along with an increase in coffee production in recent years, the middlemen\u2019s trading domain is spreading to cover the coffee production area of the Bolaven Plateau. On the other hand, because a fair trade cooperative is hierarchically organized in a bureaucratic form, it is not flexible in terms of financial flow and decision-making processes. Consequently, the farmers continue to sell a certain amount of coffee to the middlemen.<\/p>\n
This approach, which revealed how fair trade transactions are situated in the mechanism of the existing trade practices between farmers and middlemen, constitutes an attempt to situate the transactions of fair trade cooperatives in the social context of the place where their trading practices are conducted.<\/p>\n
*********<\/p>\n
At present, when certifications and audits are necessary to ensure transparency and traceability in the globalized agricultural market, it is very important to create ethnographies on the issues that producers in developing countries face. Fair trade is a symbolic movement and institution that fits current trends. I wrote up this ethnography with the intention of providing materials to help examine the possibilities and limitations of the logic that this movement and institution carry. I achieved this goal by embedding fair trade in a certain social context for the sake of people inside and outside of the anthropology community who are interested in the concept.<\/p>\n
It is necessary in applied anthropology to collaborate with actors inside\/outside of academism and to contribute to the creation (or re-consideration) of \u201ccivil society,\u201d and while this has been happening in Japan, it is still rare compared with the US. However, various ethnographies concerning migration and refugees, disasters, medical issues, and the social welfare of elderly and disabled people have been published in Japan, and the authors located these pieces in the field of applied anthropology. I suppose these ethnographies have had somewhat large impacts, both outside and inside of academia. Various anthropological inquiries into topics that citizens are highly interested in, including fair trade, are currently underway in Japan.<\/p>\n
References<\/p>\n
Beskey, Sarah. 2013\u00a0The Darjeeling Distinction: Labor and Justice on Fair-Trade Tea Plantations in India<\/em>, University of California Press.<\/p>\n Luetchford, Peter. 2007 Fair Trade and a Global Commodity: Coffee in Costa Rica, Pluto Press.<\/p>\n Lyon, Sarah. 2010\u00a0Coffee and Community: Maya Farmers and Fair-Trade Markets<\/em>, University Press of Colorado.<\/p>\n Minoo, Arihiro. 2014\u00a0The Anthropology of Fair Trade: The Everyday Life and the Cooperatives of Coffee Farmers in the Bolaven Plateau of Southern Laos<\/em>, Mekhong Publishing. \uff08\u7b95\u66f2\u5728\u5f18\u300e\u30d5\u30a7\u30a2\u30c8\u30ec\u30fc\u30c9\u306e\u4eba\u985e\u5b66\u300f\u3081\u3053\u3093\uff09<\/p>\n Moberg, Mark. 2008\u00a0Slipping Away: Banana Politics and Fair Trade in the Eastern Caribbean<\/em>, Berghahn Books.<\/p>\n <\/p>\n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":" \u30d5\u30a7\u30a2\u30c8\u30ec\u30fc\u30c9\u3092\u793e\u4f1a\u306e\u306a\u304b\u306b\u57cb\u3081\u8fbc\u3080 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Embedding Fair Trade into a Society Arihiro Minoo Toyo University Compared with Western countries such as the UK or Switzerland, in Japan, fair trade lacks popularity. Nevertheless, because the concept of alleviating poverty through […]<\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":1,"featured_media":0,"parent":0,"menu_order":0,"comment_status":"closed","ping_status":"closed","template":"","meta":[],"edited-by":[34],"class_list":["post-1150","propios-terminos","type-propios-terminos","status-publish","hentry","edited-by-akinori-hamada-ryujyu-satomi-miki-namba"],"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/waunet.org\/wcaa\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/propios-terminos\/1150","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/waunet.org\/wcaa\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/propios-terminos"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/waunet.org\/wcaa\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/propios-terminos"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/waunet.org\/wcaa\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/1"}],"replies":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/waunet.org\/wcaa\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/comments?post=1150"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/waunet.org\/wcaa\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=1150"}],"wp:term":[{"taxonomy":"edited-by","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/waunet.org\/wcaa\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/edited-by?post=1150"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}